The Treaty of Versailles Empowers Hitler

While reading chapters 9-12 in Hagen Schulze’s Germany: A New History, I discovered several connections between the imposition of the Treaty of Versailles on Germany by the Allied powers, and the eventual rise to power of Adolf Hitler.  Since the Treaty was virtually opposed by all Germans, the implementation of a democracy as Germany’s governmental structure after defeat by the Allies was also detested.  The economic crisis that came about as a result of the Treaty’s demands and governmental failure brought about a society that allowed Hitler and his politics to flourish.

Some Terms of the Treaty of Versailles

 According to Schulze, “the German reaction (to the Versailles Treaty) was almost universal opposition to the terms” (203).  Meeting the demands meant that Germany would lose “20 percent of its territory, 10 percent of the population, one-third of its hard coal production, one-quarter of its grain and potato production, four-fifths of its iron ore reserves, and all its colonies and commercial fleet,” as well as much of its army (203).  For a country devastated by war, the terms of the Treaty seemed unmanageable to the Germans.  The Germans viewed themselves as fragile, having no control, and they saw the Allies as the enemy.  Germans equated democracy as coming into existence along with the despised Treaty, and the thought of comprise with the Allies as a sign of weakness (205).  When Hitler announced one of his main goals to be the freeing of the nation from the Treaty of Versailles, society embraced him as this was “a demand popular in all social classes and political camps” (231).  The Germans’ opposition to the Treaty and Hitler’s promise to release the country from meeting its terms opened a pathway for Hitler to climb to power.

The inability of the Weimar democracy to lift Germans out of suffering during the economic crisis and to meet the society’s desire in opposing the Treaty of Versailles led to the Germans developing a negative perception of democracy, and this perception eventually aided Hitler in his rise to authority  Schulz states that the “far left and far right made up the great majority of the Weimar cultural scene; they were ideological enemies…and yet in complete agreement when it came to mocking and attacking the existing democratic government…” (221). The Germans, while holding varying ideological and political views, tended to agree on their unenthusiastic feelings toward democracy. 

Inflation - Germany Printed More Money to Pay Off Debts

Also, the economic and social crisis, the inflation of the German mark in the 1920's, and the loss of jobs “was generally blamed on democracy and the republic” and led individuals to join the Communists or National Socialist Party (226).  Workers turned from democracy when they realized that it could not uphold its welfare programs, and this led to its later breakdown in 1933 (226, 236).  The failure of the Weimar democracy that buckled under the pressure of upholding the Treaty’s demands and supporting its struggling population allowed for Hitler to step in and make promises to repair what Germany had lost.  In the midst of these crises, the Germans felt weak and desperate, and were willing to grasp on to Hitler’s emotional appeals in their time of need.  They viewed democracy and the Allies as their adversaries and the cause of their troubles, and were ready to latch on to Hitler’s promises.

The Nazis Rise to Power

As previously stated, Hitler wanted to “free the nation from the chains of the Versailles Treaty” (231).  His speeches appealed to the common citizen, yet he was also embraced by those who were pro-democracy in his position as the German chancellor.  Political leaders of the Social Democrats as well as Hitler’s more conservative supporters believed that his cabinet would keep him in line from pursuing his more radical policies, and they also felt as if things could hardly get any worse (245-6).  It was for this reason that the majority of Germans were willing to accept Hitler’s dictatorship.  Hitler seemed to provide what the democracy hadn’t been able to.  The National Socialist Party offered many benefits to its “national community” from new jobs that came with the constructing of autobahns to a sense of solidarity that Germans had not experienced in their politically divided nation since the war (256).  Hitler’s job-creation programs, celebration of culture, and success in foreign affairs led to an “undeniable approval felt by the majority of the population,” and it is likely that the Aryan Germans saw Hitler as a hero in what he provided for their nation (257).  Hitler climbed to an unprecedented level of power as a result of the promises he made and what he was able to provide to a nation of people who felt they had lost everything.

Hitler Addresses His Supporters

After reading the Schulz chapters for this assignment, I came to understand for the first time why Hitler was able to come to power.  He played upon the emotions of a broken people and allowed them to feel that they were capable of rebuilding and developing as a part of a successful nation.  The Treaty of Versailles left Germany devastated and incapable of providing for its own citizens.  It inadvertently created a society that was willing to accept a dictator the Germans had faith in and believed could change their nation for the better in saving them from an economic and societal state of crisis.  Germans viewed themselves as helpless and somewhat hopeless as a consequence of the Allies demands on Germany until Hitler provided the Germans with promises and results they could believe in.  The German society viewed Hitler as an idol until his true colors were shown.

Germany: A Nation Defined in Culture before Borders

Although many challenges existed along the road to the unification of Germany and the founding of a German state in 1871, one that remained present throughout much of the 17^th, 18^th, and 19^th centuries was the fact that several nations held stake in German territory, and none were willing to give up their claim or sincerely acknowledge the wishes of the German people.  The borders of Germany were consistently redrawn as its neighboring nations fought several wars for territorial and political gains.  As a result of these changes in power, Germany had little chance to develop as a political power, but this resulted in the development of a German identity based on cultural accomplishments.

Map of Austrian and Prussian Territory, and the German States

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe - German Intellectual

 According to historian Hagan Schulze, “In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ‘German’ still referred only to a language, nothing more” (86).  The fragmentation of the nation forced the rulers of the small German states and governments to develop skills necessary to rule these territories, resulting in the rise of an educated class of Germans.  Princes sought to surround themselves with learned officials, so support increased for schools, universities, and academies (89).  This new educated class contributed to gains in the development of the German language that started with Martin Luther’s German translation of the Bible, and also helped to create literature that fostered a “unified opinion and taste that extended across the borders of the German territorial states” (89).  Although Germans were not united within their nation’s boundaries, they achieved advances in intellect and language.  Schulze states that “Germany’s extraordinary cultural flowering made it the new Greece…powerless but intellectually supreme” (91).  In this sense, Germany existed only as a cultural center as opposed to a political power.

Theodor Korner - Poet/Contributor to Wars of Liberation

When the “protective shell” of the Holy Roman Empire disappeared in 1806, it became even more challenging to determine what Germany was and where its borders lie, but the devastation caused by the French and the impositions imposed by French customs duties set the stage for “the administrative reform of the German states along French lines, and the discovery of Germany as a nation” (102).  Germany continued to play its role as the cultural center as its poets contributed to the anti-French propaganda in the Wars of Liberation against Napoleon (106).  Even after the Wars, Germans were not free to develop their own constitutions due to the involvement of Prussia, Austria, and kings of Denmark, England, and the Netherlands in the German Confederation (110).  This suppression of German freedom, although a challenge, increased the sense of unity among Germans as they joined together in a fight for political power. 

Composer Ludwig van Beethoven

As before the Wars of Liberation, Germany still seemed only able to make cultural advances.  Paintings by Moriz von Schwind and Ludwig Richter, and music by Carl Maria von Weber, Ludwig van Beethoven, Franz Schubert, and Felix Mendelssohn-Bartholdy encountered great success.  Literature written by August von Platen and Heinrich Heine also thrived (114).  Schultz argues that Germany was “a poetic, historical, and utopian notion, an ideal that in its more earthly incarnation usually bore the name ‘Prussia’” (117).  Poets and leaders of the Wars of Liberation remained the voice of Germany into 1848, when many attended the German National Assembly on May 18 (124). 

Though it took several wars, revolutions, and the efforts of the culturally elite Germans, the nation of Prussia, and the leadership of Bismarck to eventually bring about the founding of Germany as a nation state in 1871, it is clear that the existence of Germany as a culture existed long before the modern nation was given its name.  While its borders and political rulers fluctuated, the unity of its people through its cultural achievements remained strong.  German identity evolved through the nation’s literature, art, and music, although its neighbors and rulers often posed a challenge to Germany’s ultimate founding.

Map of the German Empire of 1871

In Response to "Martin Luther: Reluctant Revolutionary"

Luther's 95 Theses

Although Martin Luther set out to be a religious revolutionary, he also reluctantly became a cultural and political revolutionary.  The reactions and rebellions inspired by his writings were unanticipated by Luther who believed he was only carrying out his Christian duty.  Luther was a religious revolutionary in the sense that he awoke the public to the notion of freedom of faith.  This was a principle included in the 95 theses Luther nailed to the Church door.  Freedom of faith meant that the individual should not need to go through a middle man to reach God.  Martin Luther shocked the public with the revelation that the Church’s seven sacraments were the creation of church leaders, since the Bible only lists the Lord’s Supper and baptism as sacraments.  Martin Luther was a truly inspiring religious revolutionary because he spoke for what he believed to be right in the face of excommunication in pursuing what he felt was his duty.

Luther’s idea of freedom of faith from authority other than God sparked an unforeseen political and cultural revolution.  Many interpreted Luther’s writings to mean freedom from authority in general.  For the first time, the common German realized that he could have a say in the way the Church was run.  The people of Wittenberg stunned Luther when they took over their public administration and schools in a political act that showed the Holy Roman Empire that people were unhappy with the way the Empire was run.

Wittenberg - "The Birthplace of the Reformation"

 Serfs were also inspired by Luther to rebel against the authority of their lords and to stand up for themselves as individuals, an act that was rare in this culture.  Although this rebellion resulted in the slaying of many serfs, violence unexpected by Luther but in the end encouraged by his writings since he believed that the peasants were influenced by the Devil, it shows that Luther’s writings empowered the individual to take action for a cause.

Matin Luther's German Bible

Martin Luther was important to the German lands because he inspired the Germans to take religious and political action of their own without answering to the Empire.  His writings empowered the Germans, in the address to the Christian nobility of the German nation and “On the Babylon Captivity of The Church,” with their common and easily comprehensible language.  Also, for the first time, he presented a German translation of the Bible that was accessible to the common man.  This allowed ordinary Christians to read and interpret the Bible through a lens unstained by the teachings of the Church.  Martin Luther gave Germans the chance to experience freedom of faith and a sense of individuality.

Martin Luther

What I believe is most interesting about Martin Luther is that his writings inspired so many different responses.  Not only did the serfs rebel and the German public begin to stand on their own, but different forms of Protestantism sprung up across the world, ranging from Calvinism to the practice of Protestantism in America by the Pilgrims.  I was also surprised that Luther encouraged violence in response to the actions of the serfs, and that he warned against Jews saying that their beliefs and practices defamed God.  While it is unquestionable that Luther stimulated great and positive change with his writings, I think it is also interesting to note that his texts also encouraged some negative perceptions. 

The Reform Efforts of Maximilian I

According to Hagen Schulze, many of the reform efforts taking place in the 1400’s were aimed at making Germany more like the nation states of France and England.  Schulze argues that “had these attempts succeeded, the German nation would have had the chance to establish itself as a nation state” (45).  When reading, I was especially intrigued by Emperor Maximilian’s ideas for reform.  I believe that his ideas were revolutionary and that some of his ideas parallel what the American political system eventually evolved into almost 300 years later.

Emperor Maximilian I

The emperor’s plans for reform included “establishment of an imperial court of law in 1495, in combination with a proclaimed state of ‘lasting law and order’ throughout the empire…division of the entire empire into ten administrative districts…a representative body for the estates” (45).  It appears that Emperor Maximilian I was attempting to move away from the select group of princes that had been established to work with the emperor in making decisions, towards a more representative body.  Also, the separation of the empire into ten administrative districts would have allowed the emperor greater control over the activities of certain areas of the empire since another ruling body would be in place.  Unfortunately, the emperor died before many of his ideas were set in place, and his reforms were replaced with a vision of a “universal monarchy” (45).  

The ideals held by Emperor Maximilian I are important to note because they show that there were those in Germany in the late 1400’s and early 1500’s that were focused on creating a distinct nation state that defined the German lands.  It seems that some of the Germans were interested in giving individuals a voice through a more representative form of governing, shifting the concentration of power from the aristocracy towards the working class.

United States System of Checks and Balances

It is possible to draw connections between Emperor Maximilian’s concepts for reform, and the early American political system.  The imperial court of law could be seen as a sort of Supreme Court, set in place to oversee the smaller courts throughout the empire, and to ensure that laws and punishments are fair.  The division of the empire into administrative districts is an early concept that later came into play in America with the development of individual state governments sending House Representatives and Senators to nation’s capital.  With Emperor Maximilian’s idea of a representative body coming out of the ten administrative districts and the creation of the imperial court, he was developing a system of checks and balances, similar to what is seen in the American political system, which would have set Germany on an earlier course towards becoming a nation state.  In this sense, the emperor would've been the executive, the imperial court of law the Supreme Court, and the representatives of the administrative districts would've made up Congress.  The emperor's concept for reform, if carried out, could've developed an early form of Democracy in Germany which I find intriguing.

Schulze, Hagen, and Deborah Lucas Schneider. Germany: A New History. Harvard University Press, 2001. 31-69. Print.

So, Why Germany?

I am beyond excited about studying abroad for 17 days in December!  This will be my first time outside of the United States, and I have no idea what to expect.  So, you’re probably wondering, why did I choose Germany for my first abroad experience? 

 I first became interested in Germany when I was very young, probably seven or eight years old.  I remember sitting at the dinner table with my family and hearing my half-sister, Erica, talk about the many times that she’d spent in Germany.  Her mother lived there, and Erica had traveled to visit her.  After hearing several stories, I remember going to my bedroom to retrieve a notebook, and asking my half-sister to give me some basic German phrases to learn.  Unfortunately, my knowledge of the German language ends there, but I’m looking forward to taking a German language class in the fall.

Gate to Concentration Camp in Auschwitz

My interest in Germany peaked again in middle school when I first started learning about the World Wars.  This intrigue continued through high school, where I actually did an independent study focusing on the Holocaust.  Looking back, I’ve come to realize that, throughout my life, my conceptions of Germany have been stuck in the 1940’s.  I feel that far too many Americans share this same negative perception of Germany, but it is now clear to me that this is unfair.  If a country is judged only by its past history, so much of the beauty and value of the world and various cultures would be overlooked.  I chose to travel to Germany because I want to learn what the Germany of today is like and to embrace the culture that the country has to offer.

Through studying abroad in Germany, I expect to learn how to be more open-minded.  My exposure to other cultures has been minimal, especially spending my high school years in a small town where I graduated with a class of 99 students.  When you spend most of your time with people just like you, it’s easy to miss out on the uniqueness of different cultures.  I expect to experience what it’s like to talk to people from a completely different background than my own, and to hear how they talk about their own culture as well as their perceptions about American culture.  I hope to learn how others perceive Americans, and expect to be motivated to change some aspects of myself and my personal beliefs as a result of this experience.

  Bertolt Brecht

As a theater performance major and broadcast communications minor, it is important for me to travel abroad, and Germany is a great place to start.  As an actor, being familiar with German culture and language gives me a wider performance range.  In the past when I’ve played characters from other cultures, my research has come straight from books and photos.  I have no idea what it’s like to live life in another country, and I’m excited to scrape the surface of what this could mean.  Also, Germany offers its own unique form of theatre and its history includes some important theorists.  One of which I’ve done research on in the past is Bertolt Brecht and his theory: "verfremdungseffekt,” or the “alienation effect.”  I find it exciting to learn about the country that was home to Brecht and the types of performance that are still prevalent throughout Germany.

I can’t wait to go to Germany!  I know that this experience will impact me in more ways than I could possibly know, and I think that’s what I’m most excited about. 

Guten Tag!

Hello!  My name is Rachael and I am beyond excited to be blogging about my preparations for and reflections upon a three week long trip to Germany in December.  I am a currently a junior Theatre Performance major and Broadcast Communications minor in college.  I am so thrilled to have the opportunity to travel and study abroad for the first time.  I can't wait to learn more about Germany and to experience the culture first hand.  I'm looking forward to continuing on with this blog as a means of reflecting upon what's sure to be an amazing and life changing experience.